wallfunction.c

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/**
 * @file wallfunction.c
 * @brief Wall function implementations for near-wall turbulence modeling
 *
 * This file contains various wall function models that bridge the gap between
 * the wall and the first computational grid point. Wall functions allow simulations
 * to avoid resolving the viscous sublayer, reducing computational cost while
 * maintaining reasonable accuracy for turbulent wall-bounded flows.
 *
 * PHYSICAL BACKGROUND:
 * The near-wall region in turbulent flows is characterized by three layers:
 *   1. Viscous sublayer (y+ < 5): Dominated by viscous effects, u+ = y+
 *   2. Buffer layer (5 < y+ < 30): Transition region
 *   3. Log-law region (y+ > 30): Inertial layer, u+ = (1/κ) ln(y+) + B
 * where:
 *   u+ = u / u_τ (normalized velocity)
 *   y+ = y * u_τ / ν (normalized wall distance)
 *   u_τ = sqrt(τ_w / ρ) (friction velocity)
 *   κ ≈ 0.41 (von Karman constant)
 *   B ≈ 5.5 (log-law intercept for smooth walls)
 *
 * IMPLEMENTED MODELS:
 *   - No-slip: Linear interpolation for stationary walls
 *   - Free-slip: Normal interpolation, tangential extrapolation
 *   - Werner-Wengle: Algebraic wall function
 *   - Log-law: Standard equilibrium wall function with roughness
 *   - Cabot: Non-equilibrium wall function with pressure gradient effects
 *
 * @author Original implementation adapted from legacy code
 * @date Enhanced with comprehensive documentation
 */
 
#include "wallfunction.h"
#include <math.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
 
// ============================================================================
//                        PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
// ============================================================================
 
/** @brief von Karman constant (universal turbulence constant) */
#define KAPPA 0.41
 
/** @brief Log-law intercept constant B for smooth walls */
#define LOGLAW_B 5.5
 
/** @brief Viscous sublayer thickness y+ threshold */
#define VISCOUS_SUBLAYER_YPLUS 11.81
 
/** @brief Smooth-to-rough transition y+ threshold */
#define ROUGHNESS_TRANSITION_YPLUS 2.25
 
/** @brief Fully rough regime y+ threshold */
#define FULLY_ROUGH_YPLUS 90.0
 
/** @brief Eddy viscosity damping coefficient (van Driest damping) */
#define DAMPING_COEFFICIENT 19.0
 
// ============================================================================
//                   BASIC BOUNDARY CONDITION FUNCTIONS
// ============================================================================
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `noslip()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
void noslip(UserCtx *user, 
            double distance_reference, double distance_boundary,
            Cmpnts velocity_wall, Cmpnts velocity_reference,
            Cmpnts *velocity_boundary,
            double normal_x, double normal_y, double normal_z)
{
    (void)user;
    (void)normal_x;
    (void)normal_y;
    (void)normal_z;
    // Compute velocity difference between reference point and wall
    double delta_u = velocity_reference.x - velocity_wall.x;
    double delta_v = velocity_reference.y - velocity_wall.y;
    double delta_w = velocity_reference.z - velocity_wall.z;
    
    // Linear interpolation factor
    double interpolation_factor = distance_boundary / distance_reference;
    
    // Apply linear interpolation
    (*velocity_boundary).x = interpolation_factor * delta_u;
    (*velocity_boundary).y = interpolation_factor * delta_v;
    (*velocity_boundary).z = interpolation_factor * delta_w;
    
    // Add wall velocity (shift to absolute frame)
    (*velocity_boundary).x += velocity_wall.x;
    (*velocity_boundary).y += velocity_wall.y;
    (*velocity_boundary).z += velocity_wall.z;
}
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `freeslip()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
void freeslip(UserCtx *user,
              double distance_reference, double distance_boundary,
              Cmpnts velocity_wall, Cmpnts velocity_reference,
              Cmpnts *velocity_boundary,
              double normal_x, double normal_y, double normal_z)
{
    (void)user;
    // Extract normal components of velocities
    double wall_normal_velocity = velocity_wall.x * normal_x + 
                                   velocity_wall.y * normal_y + 
                                   velocity_wall.z * normal_z;
    
    double reference_normal_velocity = velocity_reference.x * normal_x + 
                                        velocity_reference.y * normal_y + 
                                        velocity_reference.z * normal_z;
    
    // Interpolate normal velocity component
    double boundary_normal_velocity = wall_normal_velocity + 
        (reference_normal_velocity - wall_normal_velocity) * (distance_boundary / distance_reference);
    
    // Extract tangential velocity components (extrapolated from reference point)
    double tangential_u = velocity_reference.x - reference_normal_velocity * normal_x;
    double tangential_v = velocity_reference.y - reference_normal_velocity * normal_y;
    double tangential_w = velocity_reference.z - reference_normal_velocity * normal_z;
    
    // Reconstruct total velocity: U = U_t + U_n * n
    (*velocity_boundary).x = tangential_u + boundary_normal_velocity * normal_x;
    (*velocity_boundary).y = tangential_v + boundary_normal_velocity * normal_y;
    (*velocity_boundary).z = tangential_w + boundary_normal_velocity * normal_z;
}
 
// ============================================================================
//              ROUGHNESS-CORRECTED LOG-LAW FUNCTIONS
// ============================================================================
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `E_coeff()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
double E_coeff(double friction_velocity, double roughness_height, double kinematic_viscosity)
{
    // Compute roughness Reynolds number
    double roughness_reynolds = friction_velocity * roughness_height / kinematic_viscosity;
    
    double roughness_correction;
    
    if (roughness_reynolds <= ROUGHNESS_TRANSITION_YPLUS) {
        // Hydraulically smooth regime: no correction needed
        roughness_correction = 0.0;
    }
    else if (roughness_reynolds < FULLY_ROUGH_YPLUS) {
        // Transitional regime: smooth interpolation using sine function
        // This provides a gradual transition between smooth and rough wall behavior
        double max_correction = LOGLAW_B - 8.5 + (1.0 / KAPPA) * log(roughness_reynolds);
        
        roughness_correction = max_correction * 
            sin(0.4258 * (log(roughness_reynolds) - 0.811));
    }
    else {
        // Fully rough regime: maximum correction
        roughness_correction = LOGLAW_B - 8.5 + (1.0 / KAPPA) * log(roughness_reynolds);
    }
    
    // Return E = exp[κ(B - ΔB)]
    return exp(KAPPA * (LOGLAW_B - roughness_correction));
}
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `u_hydset_roughness()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
double u_hydset_roughness(double kinematic_viscosity, double wall_distance,
                          double friction_velocity, double roughness_height)
{
    // Normalized wall distance
    double yplus = friction_velocity * wall_distance / kinematic_viscosity;
    
    // Threshold values for regime transitions
    const double viscous_limit = VISCOUS_SUBLAYER_YPLUS;
    const double loglayer_limit = 300.0;
    
    double tangential_velocity;
    
    if (yplus <= viscous_limit) {
        // Viscous sublayer: linear velocity profile
        tangential_velocity = friction_velocity * yplus;
    }
    else if (yplus <= loglayer_limit) {
        // Log-layer: logarithmic velocity profile with roughness correction
        double E = E_coeff(friction_velocity, roughness_height, kinematic_viscosity);
        tangential_velocity = (friction_velocity / KAPPA) * log(E * yplus);
    }
    else {
        // Outside valid range (wake region or beyond)
        tangential_velocity = -1.0;
    }
    
    return tangential_velocity;
}
 
// ============================================================================
//         NEWTON-RAPHSON SOLVER FOR FRICTION VELOCITY (LOG-LAW)
// ============================================================================
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `f_hydset()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
double f_hydset(double kinematic_viscosity, double known_velocity, 
                double wall_distance, double friction_velocity_guess, 
                double roughness_height)
{
    double yplus = friction_velocity_guess * wall_distance / kinematic_viscosity;
    double residual;
    
    if (yplus <= VISCOUS_SUBLAYER_YPLUS) {
        // Viscous sublayer: u = u_τ * y+
        residual = friction_velocity_guess * yplus - known_velocity;
    }
    else {
        // Log-layer: u = (u_τ / κ) * ln(E * y+)
        double E = E_coeff(friction_velocity_guess, roughness_height, kinematic_viscosity);
        residual = friction_velocity_guess * (1.0 / KAPPA * log(E * yplus)) - known_velocity;
    }
    
    return residual;
}
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref df_hydset().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see df_hydset()
 */
double df_hydset(double kinematic_viscosity, double known_velocity,
                 double wall_distance, double friction_velocity_guess,
                 double roughness_height)
{
    const double perturbation = 1.e-7;
    
    double f_plus = f_hydset(kinematic_viscosity, known_velocity, wall_distance,
                            friction_velocity_guess + perturbation, roughness_height);
    
    double f_minus = f_hydset(kinematic_viscosity, known_velocity, wall_distance,
                             friction_velocity_guess - perturbation, roughness_height);
    
    return (f_plus - f_minus) / (2.0 * perturbation);
}
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref find_utau_hydset().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see find_utau_hydset()
 */
double find_utau_hydset(double kinematic_viscosity, double known_velocity,
                        double wall_distance, double initial_guess,
                        double roughness_height)
{
    double friction_velocity = initial_guess;
    double friction_velocity_old = initial_guess;
    
    const int max_iterations = 30;
    const double convergence_tolerance = 1.e-7;
    
    int iteration;
    for (iteration = 0; iteration < max_iterations; iteration++) {
        // Newton-Raphson update
        double residual = f_hydset(kinematic_viscosity, known_velocity, wall_distance,
                                  friction_velocity_old, roughness_height);
        double derivative = df_hydset(kinematic_viscosity, known_velocity, wall_distance,
                                     friction_velocity_old, roughness_height);
        
        friction_velocity = friction_velocity_old - residual / derivative;
        
        // Check convergence
        if (fabs(friction_velocity - friction_velocity_old) < convergence_tolerance) {
            break;
        }
        
        friction_velocity_old = friction_velocity;
    }
    
    // Warn if convergence not achieved
    if (iteration == max_iterations) {
        LOG_ALLOW(LOCAL, LOG_DEBUG, 
                 "WARNING: u_tau iteration did not converge after %d iterations. "
                 "Final difference: %le\n", 
                 iteration, fabs(friction_velocity - friction_velocity_old));
    }
    
    return friction_velocity;
}
 
// ============================================================================
//               TURBULENT EDDY VISCOSITY MODELS
// ============================================================================
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `nu_t()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
double nu_t(double yplus)
{
    // van Driest damping function: [1 - exp(-y+ / A+)]²
    double damping_function = 1.0 - exp(-yplus / DAMPING_COEFFICIENT);
    
    // Mixing length model: ν_t / ν = κ * y+ * D²
    return KAPPA * yplus * damping_function * damping_function;
}
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref integrate_1().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see integrate_1()
 */
double integrate_1(double kinematic_viscosity, double wall_distance,
                   double friction_velocity, int integration_mode)
{
    const int num_points = 30;
    double step_size = wall_distance / (num_points - 1);
    double integral_values[num_points];
    
    // Compute integrand at each point
    for (int i = 0; i < num_points; i++) {
        double current_distance = i * step_size;
        double yplus = current_distance * friction_velocity / kinematic_viscosity;
        double eddy_viscosity_ratio = nu_t(yplus);
        
        if (integration_mode == 0) {
            // Mode 0: integrand = 1 / [(1 + ν_t/ν) * ν]
            integral_values[i] = 1.0 / ((1.0 + eddy_viscosity_ratio) * kinematic_viscosity);
        }
        else {
            // Mode 1: integrand = y / [(1 + ν_t/ν) * ν]
            integral_values[i] = current_distance / 
                                ((1.0 + eddy_viscosity_ratio) * kinematic_viscosity);
        }
    }
    
    // Trapezoidal rule integration with corrected endpoints
    double integral_sum = 0.0;
    
    // Interior points: weight = (f[i-1] + 2*f[i] + f[i+1]) * dy/4
    for (int i = 1; i < num_points - 1; i++) {
        integral_sum += (integral_values[i-1] + 2.0 * integral_values[i] + 
                        integral_values[i+1]) * 0.25 * step_size;
    }
    
    // Endpoint correction for higher accuracy
    integral_sum += 0.1667 * step_size * 
                   (2.0 * integral_values[0] + integral_values[1] +
                    2.0 * integral_values[num_points-1] + integral_values[num_points-2]);
    
    return integral_sum;
}
 
// ============================================================================
//            CABOT NON-EQUILIBRIUM WALL FUNCTION
// ============================================================================
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref taw().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see taw()
 */
double taw(double kinematic_viscosity, double friction_velocity,
           double wall_distance, double velocity, double pressure_gradient_tangent)
{
    // Compute integrated viscosity profiles
    double F1 = integrate_1(kinematic_viscosity, wall_distance, friction_velocity, 0);
    double Fy = integrate_1(kinematic_viscosity, wall_distance, friction_velocity, 1);
    
    // Apply momentum balance: τ_w * F1 = u - (dp/dx) * Fy
    return (1.0 / F1) * (velocity - pressure_gradient_tangent * Fy);
}
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref u_Cabot().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see u_Cabot()
 */
double u_Cabot(double kinematic_viscosity, double wall_distance,
               double friction_velocity, double pressure_gradient_tangent,
               double wall_shear_stress)
{
    double F1 = integrate_1(kinematic_viscosity, wall_distance, friction_velocity, 0);
    double Fy = integrate_1(kinematic_viscosity, wall_distance, friction_velocity, 1);
    
    return wall_shear_stress * F1 + pressure_gradient_tangent * Fy;
}
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `f_Cabot()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
double f_Cabot(double kinematic_viscosity, double velocity, double wall_distance,
               double friction_velocity_guess, double pressure_gradient_tangent,
               double pressure_gradient_normal)
{
    (void)pressure_gradient_normal;
    double wall_shear = taw(kinematic_viscosity, friction_velocity_guess,
                           wall_distance, velocity, pressure_gradient_tangent);
    
    return friction_velocity_guess - sqrt(fabs(wall_shear));
}
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref df_Cabot().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see df_Cabot()
 */
double df_Cabot(double kinematic_viscosity, double velocity, double wall_distance,
                double friction_velocity_guess, double pressure_gradient_tangent,
                double pressure_gradient_normal)
{
    const double perturbation = 1.e-7;
    
    double f_plus = f_Cabot(kinematic_viscosity, velocity, wall_distance,
                           friction_velocity_guess + perturbation,
                           pressure_gradient_tangent, pressure_gradient_normal);
    
    double f_minus = f_Cabot(kinematic_viscosity, velocity, wall_distance,
                            friction_velocity_guess - perturbation,
                            pressure_gradient_tangent, pressure_gradient_normal);
    
    return (f_plus - f_minus) / (2.0 * perturbation);
}
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref find_utau_Cabot().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see find_utau_Cabot()
 */
void find_utau_Cabot(double kinematic_viscosity, double velocity, double wall_distance,
                     double initial_guess, double pressure_gradient_tangent,
                     double pressure_gradient_normal, double *friction_velocity,
                     double *wall_shear_velocity, double *wall_shear_normal)
{
    double current_guess = initial_guess;
    double new_guess;
    
    const int max_iterations = 30;
    const double convergence_tolerance = 1.e-10;
    
    int iteration;
    for (iteration = 0; iteration < max_iterations; iteration++) {
        double residual = f_Cabot(kinematic_viscosity, velocity, wall_distance,
                                 current_guess, pressure_gradient_tangent,
                                 pressure_gradient_normal);
        
        double derivative = df_Cabot(kinematic_viscosity, velocity, wall_distance,
                                    current_guess, pressure_gradient_tangent,
                                    pressure_gradient_normal);
        
        new_guess = fabs(current_guess - residual / derivative);
        
        if (fabs(current_guess - new_guess) < convergence_tolerance) {
            break;
        }
        
        current_guess = new_guess;
    }
    
    if (fabs(current_guess - new_guess) > 1.e-5 && iteration >= 29) {
        printf("\n!!!!!!!! Cabot Iteration Failed !!!!!!!!\n");
    }
    
    *friction_velocity = new_guess;
    *wall_shear_velocity = taw(kinematic_viscosity, new_guess, wall_distance,
                              velocity, pressure_gradient_tangent);
    *wall_shear_normal = taw(kinematic_viscosity, new_guess, wall_distance,
                            0.0, pressure_gradient_normal);
}
 
// ============================================================================
//            WERNER-WENGLE ALGEBRAIC WALL FUNCTION
// ============================================================================
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `u_Werner()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
double u_Werner(double kinematic_viscosity, double wall_distance,
                double friction_velocity)
{
    double yplus = friction_velocity * wall_distance / kinematic_viscosity;
    
    // Werner-Wengle constants
    const double power_law_coefficient = 8.3;
    const double power_law_exponent = 1.0 / 7.0;
    
    double velocity;
    
    if (yplus <= VISCOUS_SUBLAYER_YPLUS) {
        // Viscous sublayer: u+ = y+
        velocity = yplus * friction_velocity;
    }
    else {
        // Power-law region: u+ = A * (y+)^B
        velocity = power_law_coefficient * pow(yplus, power_law_exponent) * friction_velocity;
    }
    
    return velocity;
}
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `f_Werner()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
double f_Werner(double kinematic_viscosity, double velocity,
                double wall_distance, double friction_velocity)
{
    const double power_law_coefficient = 8.3;
    const double power_law_exponent = 1.0 / 7.0;
    
    // Transition point between viscous and power-law regions
    double transition_distance = VISCOUS_SUBLAYER_YPLUS * kinematic_viscosity / friction_velocity;
    
    // Transition velocity
    double transition_velocity = kinematic_viscosity / (2.0 * transition_distance) *
        pow(power_law_coefficient, 2.0 / (1.0 - power_law_exponent));
    
    double residual;
    
    if (fabs(velocity) <= transition_velocity) {
        // Viscous sublayer regime
        residual = friction_velocity * friction_velocity - 
                  velocity / wall_distance * kinematic_viscosity;
    }
    else {
        // Power-law regime (more complex inversion formula)
        double term1 = 0.5 * (1.0 - power_law_exponent) *
                      pow(power_law_coefficient, (1.0 + power_law_exponent) / 
                          (1.0 - power_law_exponent)) *
                      pow(kinematic_viscosity / wall_distance, 1.0 + power_law_exponent);
        
        double term2 = (1.0 + power_law_exponent) / power_law_coefficient *
                      pow(kinematic_viscosity / wall_distance, power_law_exponent) *
                      fabs(velocity);
        
        residual = friction_velocity * friction_velocity -
                  velocity / fabs(velocity) * pow(term1 + term2, 2.0 / (1.0 + power_law_exponent));
    }
    
    return residual;
}
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref df_Werner().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see df_Werner()
 */
double df_Werner(double kinematic_viscosity, double velocity,
                 double wall_distance, double friction_velocity)
{
    const double perturbation = 1.e-7;
    
    double f_plus = f_Werner(kinematic_viscosity, velocity, wall_distance,
                            friction_velocity + perturbation);
    
    double f_minus = f_Werner(kinematic_viscosity, velocity, wall_distance,
                             friction_velocity - perturbation);
    
    return (f_plus - f_minus) / (2.0 * perturbation);
}
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref find_utau_Werner().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see find_utau_Werner()
 */
double find_utau_Werner(double kinematic_viscosity, double velocity,
                        double wall_distance, double initial_guess)
{
    double current_guess = initial_guess;
    double new_guess;
    
    const int max_iterations = 20;
    const double convergence_tolerance = 1.e-7;
    
    int iteration;
    for (iteration = 0; iteration < max_iterations; iteration++) {
        double residual = f_Werner(kinematic_viscosity, velocity, wall_distance, current_guess);
        double derivative = df_Werner(kinematic_viscosity, velocity, wall_distance, current_guess);
        
        new_guess = current_guess - residual / derivative;
        
        if (fabs(current_guess - new_guess) < convergence_tolerance) {
            break;
        }
        
        current_guess = new_guess;
    }
    
    if (fabs(current_guess - new_guess) > 1.e-5 && iteration >= 19) {
        printf("\n!!!!!!!! Werner-Wengle Iteration Failed !!!!!!!!\n");
    }
    
    return new_guess;
}
 
// ============================================================================
//              SIMPLE LOG-LAW WALL FUNCTION (NO ROUGHNESS)
// ============================================================================
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref u_loglaw().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see u_loglaw()
 */
double u_loglaw(double wall_distance, double friction_velocity, double roughness_length)
{
    return friction_velocity * (1.0 / KAPPA) * log((roughness_length + wall_distance) / roughness_length);
}
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `find_utau_loglaw()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
double find_utau_loglaw(double velocity, double wall_distance, double roughness_length)
{
    return KAPPA * velocity / log((wall_distance + roughness_length) / roughness_length);
}
 
// ============================================================================
//                  UTILITY FUNCTIONS
// ============================================================================
 
// ============================================================================
//          HIGH-LEVEL WALL FUNCTION INTERFACE FUNCTIONS
// ============================================================================
 
/**
 * @brief Implementation of \ref wall_function().
 * @details Full API contract (arguments, ownership, side effects) is documented with
 *          the header declaration in `include/wallfunction.h`.
 * @see wall_function()
 */
void wall_function(UserCtx *user, double distance_reference, double distance_boundary,
                   Cmpnts velocity_wall, Cmpnts velocity_reference,
                   Cmpnts *velocity_boundary, PetscReal *friction_velocity,
                   double normal_x, double normal_y, double normal_z)
{
    SimCtx *simCtx = user->simCtx;
    double kinematic_viscosity = 1.0 / simCtx->ren;
    
    // Decompose velocity into components
    double delta_u = velocity_reference.x - velocity_wall.x;
    double delta_v = velocity_reference.y - velocity_wall.y;
    double delta_w = velocity_reference.z - velocity_wall.z;
    
    double normal_velocity = delta_u * normal_x + delta_v * normal_y + delta_w * normal_z;
    
    double tangential_u = delta_u - normal_velocity * normal_x;
    double tangential_v = delta_v - normal_velocity * normal_y;
    double tangential_w = delta_w - normal_velocity * normal_z;
    
    double tangential_magnitude = sqrt(tangential_u * tangential_u +
                                      tangential_v * tangential_v +
                                      tangential_w * tangential_w);
    
    // Apply Werner-Wengle wall function
    double utau_guess = 0.05;
    double tangential_modeled = u_Werner(kinematic_viscosity, distance_boundary, utau_guess);
    if (friction_velocity) {
        // Werner-Wengle path currently uses a fixed u_tau estimate.
        *friction_velocity = (PetscReal)utau_guess;
    }
    
    // Scale tangential components
    if (tangential_magnitude > 1.e-10) {
        tangential_u *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
        tangential_v *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
        tangential_w *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
    }
    else {
        tangential_u = tangential_v = tangential_w = 0.0;
    }
    
    // Reconstruct velocity: U = U_t + U_n * n
    (*velocity_boundary).x = tangential_u + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_x;
    (*velocity_boundary).y = tangential_v + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_y;
    (*velocity_boundary).z = tangential_w + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_z;
    
    // Add wall velocity
    (*velocity_boundary).x += velocity_wall.x;
    (*velocity_boundary).y += velocity_wall.y;
    (*velocity_boundary).z += velocity_wall.z;
}
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `wall_function_loglaw()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
void wall_function_loglaw(UserCtx *user, double roughness_height,
                          double distance_reference, double distance_boundary,
                          Cmpnts velocity_wall, Cmpnts velocity_reference,
                          Cmpnts *velocity_boundary, PetscReal *friction_velocity,
                          double normal_x, double normal_y, double normal_z)
{
    SimCtx *simCtx = user->simCtx;
    double kinematic_viscosity = 1.0 / simCtx->ren;
    
    // Decompose velocity
    double delta_u = velocity_reference.x - velocity_wall.x;
    double delta_v = velocity_reference.y - velocity_wall.y;
    double delta_w = velocity_reference.z - velocity_wall.z;
    
    double normal_velocity = delta_u * normal_x + delta_v * normal_y + delta_w * normal_z;
    
    double tangential_u = delta_u - normal_velocity * normal_x;
    double tangential_v = delta_v - normal_velocity * normal_y;
    double tangential_w = delta_w - normal_velocity * normal_z;
    
    double tangential_magnitude = sqrt(tangential_u * tangential_u +
                                      tangential_v * tangential_v +
                                      tangential_w * tangential_w);
    
    // Solve for friction velocity
    *friction_velocity = find_utau_hydset(kinematic_viscosity, tangential_magnitude,
                                         distance_reference, 0.001, roughness_height);
    
    // Compute wall function velocity
    double tangential_modeled = u_hydset_roughness(kinematic_viscosity, distance_boundary,
                                                   *friction_velocity, roughness_height);
    
    // Check if outside valid range (y+ > 300)
    if (tangential_modeled < 0.0) {
        tangential_modeled = tangential_magnitude;
    }
    
    // Scale tangential components
    if (tangential_magnitude > 1.e-10) {
        tangential_u *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
        tangential_v *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
        tangential_w *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
    }
    else {
        tangential_u = tangential_v = tangential_w = 0.0;
    }
    
    // Reconstruct total velocity
    (*velocity_boundary).x = tangential_u + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_x;
    (*velocity_boundary).y = tangential_v + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_y;
    (*velocity_boundary).z = tangential_w + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_z;
    
    // Add wall velocity
    (*velocity_boundary).x += velocity_wall.x;
    (*velocity_boundary).y += velocity_wall.y;
    (*velocity_boundary).z += velocity_wall.z;
}
 
/**
 * @brief Internal helper implementation: `wall_function_Cabot()`.
 * @details Local to this translation unit.
 */
void wall_function_Cabot(UserCtx *user, double roughness_height,
                         double distance_reference, double distance_boundary,
                         Cmpnts velocity_wall, Cmpnts velocity_reference,
                         Cmpnts *velocity_boundary, PetscReal *friction_velocity,
                         double normal_x, double normal_y, double normal_z,
                         double pressure_gradient_x, double pressure_gradient_y,
                         double pressure_gradient_z, int iteration_count)
{
    (void)roughness_height;
    SimCtx *simCtx = user->simCtx;
    double kinematic_viscosity = 1.0 / simCtx->ren;
    
    // Decompose velocity
    double delta_u = velocity_reference.x - velocity_wall.x;
    double delta_v = velocity_reference.y - velocity_wall.y;
    double delta_w = velocity_reference.z - velocity_wall.z;
    
    double normal_velocity = delta_u * normal_x + delta_v * normal_y + delta_w * normal_z;
    
    double tangential_u = delta_u - normal_velocity * normal_x;
    double tangential_v = delta_v - normal_velocity * normal_y;
    double tangential_w = delta_w - normal_velocity * normal_z;
    
    double tangential_magnitude = sqrt(tangential_u * tangential_u +
                                      tangential_v * tangential_v +
                                      tangential_w * tangential_w);
    
    // Compute tangential pressure gradient
    double pressure_gradient_tangent = 0.0;
    if (tangential_magnitude > 1.e-10) {
        pressure_gradient_tangent = (pressure_gradient_x * tangential_u +
                                    pressure_gradient_y * tangential_v +
                                    pressure_gradient_z * tangential_w) / tangential_magnitude;
    }
    
    // Normal pressure gradient (currently set to zero)
    double pressure_gradient_normal = 0.0;
    
    // Solve for friction velocity (only on first iteration or periodically)
    if (iteration_count == 0 || iteration_count > 4) {
        double utau, wall_shear1, wall_shear2;
        find_utau_Cabot(kinematic_viscosity, tangential_magnitude, distance_reference,
                       0.01, pressure_gradient_tangent, pressure_gradient_normal,
                       &utau, &wall_shear1, &wall_shear2);
        *friction_velocity = utau;
    }
    
    // Compute wall function velocity with pressure gradient correction
    double tangential_modeled = u_Cabot(kinematic_viscosity, distance_boundary,
                                       *friction_velocity, pressure_gradient_tangent,
                                       taw(kinematic_viscosity, *friction_velocity,
                                           distance_reference, tangential_magnitude,
                                           pressure_gradient_tangent));
    
    // Scale tangential components
    if (tangential_magnitude > 1.e-10) {
        tangential_u *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
        tangential_v *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
        tangential_w *= tangential_modeled / tangential_magnitude;
    }
    else {
        tangential_u = tangential_v = tangential_w = 0.0;
    }
    
    // Reconstruct total velocity
    (*velocity_boundary).x = tangential_u + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_x;
    (*velocity_boundary).y = tangential_v + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_y;
    (*velocity_boundary).z = tangential_w + (distance_boundary / distance_reference) * normal_velocity * normal_z;
    
    // Add wall velocity
    (*velocity_boundary).x += velocity_wall.x;
    (*velocity_boundary).y += velocity_wall.y;
    (*velocity_boundary).z += velocity_wall.z;
}